The most effective approach to AD is the prevention of occurrence of this disabling and life threatening condition (Braddom & Rocco 1991). This includes careful evaluation of individuals with SCI and early recognition of possible triggers that could result in AD. Improved clinician awareness of AD and greater attention to the need to eliminate noxious stimuli in individuals with SCI is a priority. Clinicians, family members, and caregivers should be aware that increased afferent stimulation (e.g. via surgery, invasive investigational procedures, labour and birth) to persons with SCI will increase the risk for development of AD. A variety of procedures can be used to prevent episodes of AD.
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- Acute Evidence
- Cardiovascular Complications during the Acute Phase of Spinal Cord Injury
- Methods
- Introduction
- Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
- Effect of Disrupted Autonomic Control on the Cardiovascular System
- Cardiovascular Complications during Acute SCI
- Interventions for Cardiovascular Complications during Acute SCI
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Abbreviations
- Neuroprotection during the Acute Phase of Spinal Cord Injury
- Respiratory Management during the Acute Phase of Spinal Cord Injury
- Methods
- Introduction
- Mechanical Ventilation
- Non-Pharmacological Interventions for Pulmonary Function Improvement during Acute SCI
- Pharmacological Interventions for Pulmonary Function Improvement during Acute SCI
- Hospital Programs for Respiratory Management during Acute SCI
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Abbreviations
- Imaging of Spinal Cord Injuries
- Surgical Interventions during the Acute Phase of Spinal Cord Injury
- Cardiovascular Complications during the Acute Phase of Spinal Cord Injury
- Rehabilitation Evidence
- Aging
- Autonomic Dysreflexia
- Introduction
- Pathophysiology of AD
- Systematic Review on AD
- Management
- Prevention Strategies
- Management of Acute AD Episodes
- Other Autonomic Dysfunctions
- “Boosting” – Autonomic Dysreflexia in Sport
- Summary
- References
- Abbreviations
- Bladder Management
- Introduction
- Types of Bladder Dysfunction in SCI
- Therapeutic Interventions for Detrusor Overactivity with Detrusor External Sphincter Dyssynergia in Spinal Cord Injury
- Enhancing Bladder Volumes Pharmacologically
- Enhancing Bladder Volumes Non-Pharmacologically
- Enhancing Bladder Emptying Pharmacologically
- Enhancing Bladder Emptying Non-Pharmacologically
- Comparing Methods of Conservative Bladder Emptying
- Intermittent Catheterization
- Triggering-Type or Expression Voiding Methods of Bladder Management
- Indwelling Catheterization (Indwelling or Suprapubic)
- Condom Catheterization
- Continent Catheterizable Stoma and Incontinent Urinary Diversion
- Electrical Stimulation for Bladder Emptying (and Enhancing Volumes)
- Sphincterotomy, Artificial Sphincters, Stents and Related Approaches for Bladder Emptying
- Other Miscellaneous Treatments
- Detrusor Areflexia
- Urinary Tract Infections
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Bone Health
- Abbreviations
- Introduction
- Systematic Review
- Fracture Risk following SCI
- Sublesional Osteoporosis (SLOP) Detection and Diagnosis
- Bone Outcome Measures
- Clinical Guide
- Pharmacological Therapy: Bisphosphonates
- Non-Pharmacologic Therapy: Rehabilitation Modalities
- Combination Interventions
- Interventions with Bone Biomarker Outcomes
- General Discussion
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Bowel Dysfunction and Management
- Cardiovascular Health and Exercise
- Mental Health after a Spinal Cord Injury
- Economic Evaluation
- Introduction
- Methods
- Results
- Economic Evaluation Studies
- Intrathecal Baclofen vs. Several Conventional Treatment Options
- Hydrophilic Gel Reservoir vs. Non-Coated Catheters for Intermittent Self-Catheterization
- Transanal Irrigation vs. Conservative Bowel Management
- Sacral Anterior Root Stimulation for Neurogenic Bladder
- Duplex Ultrasound Surveillance vs. No Surveillance for Deep Venous Thrombosis
- Oral vs. Non-Oral Erectile Dysfunction Treatments
- Electrical Stimulation Therapy vs. Standard Wound Care
- Telephone Support for Pressure Ulcer Management
- Negative Pressure Wound Therapy for Pressure Injuries
- Use of a Fibrin Sealant for Surgical Treatment of Pressure Injuries
- Implanted Neuroprosthesis for Restoration of Effective Cough
- Surgical Management in Older Individuals with SCI
- Early Decompression for Individuals with Traumatic Cervical SCI
- Supported Employment for US Veterans with SCI
- Cost of Illness Studies
- Economic Evaluation Studies
- Discussion
- Summary
- References
- Abbreviations
- Epidemiology of Traumatic SCI
- Heterotopic Ossification
- Housing and Attendant Care
- Lower Limb
- Introduction
- Systematic Reviews
- Sitting, Standing and Balance Training
- Enhancing Strength Following Locomotor Training in Incomplete SCI
- Electrical Stimulation to Enhance Lower Limb Muscle Function
- Gait Retraining Strategies to Enhance Functional Ambulation
- Orthoses/Braces
- Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)
- Combined Gait Training and Pharmacological Interventions
- Emerging Experimental Approaches
- Gaps in SCI Research for Lower Limb
- References
- Abbreviations
- Nutrition Issues Following Spinal Cord Injury
- Introduction
- Energy Imbalance
- Dysphagia
- Nutrition-Related Complications
- Nutritional Intervention Programs for Energy Imbalance and Wellness
- Nutritional Interventions for Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Disease Risk
- Nutritional Interventions for Vitamin Deficiencies and Supplementation
- Cardiovascular and Hormonal Responses to Food Ingestion
- Effects of Nutrient Intake on Ambulation Performance
- Post-Meal Resting Energy Expenditure
- Cardiovascular, Endocrine and Renal Responses to Dietary Sodium Restriction in Persons with Paraplegia and Tetraplegia
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Abbreviations
- Orthostatic Hypotension
- Pain Management
- Introduction
- Incidence, Quality and Significance
- Location and Quality of SCI Pain
- Classification of SCI Pain
- Musculoskeletal or Mechanical Pain
- Central or Neurogenic Dysesthetic Pain
- Borderzone or Segmental Pain
- Psychological Factors
- Non-Pharmacological Management of Post-SCI Pain
- Massage
- Osteopathy
- Acupuncture
- Physical Activity for Post-SCI Pain
- Behavioural Management of Pain Post SCI
- Transcranial Direct Stimulation Post SCI Pain
- Transcranial Electrical Stimulation Post SCI Pain
- Static Magnetic Field Therapy Post SCI Pain
- Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation Post SCI Pain
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation
- Functional Electrical Stimulation
- Breathing Controlled Electrical Stimulation
- Diet
- Pharmacological Management of Post-SCI Pain
- Pharmacological Measures Overall
- Anticonvulsants in SCI Pain
- Tricyclic Antidepressants in Post-SCI pain
- Anaesthetic Medications
- Antispasticity Medications
- Opioids for Post-SCI Pain
- Cannabinoids in Post-SCI Pain
- Clonidine for Post-SCI Pain
- Topical Capsaicin
- Lithium Carbonate
- Transdermal Nitroglycerine
- Surgical Interventions
- Summary
- References
- Abbreviations
- Physical Activity
- Effects of Physical Activity
- Increasing Physical Activity Participation in SCI
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Skin Integrity and Pressure Injuries
- Introduction
- Prevention
- Treatment
- Electrical Stimulation
- Laser Treatment
- Ultrasound/Ultraviolet C
- Non-Thermal Pulsed Electromagnetic Energy
- Topical Negative Pressure
- Normothermic Dressings
- Alternative Pharmacological Treatments
- Dressings
- Non-Surgical Management and Debridement
- Topical Oxygen
- Surgical and Other Miscellaneous Topical and Physical Treatments
- Alternative Organic or Herbal Treatments
- Miscellaneous Physical Treatments
- Factors Associated with Pressure Injury Treatment Success
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Abbreviations
- Primary Care
- Rehabilitation Practices
- Common Abbreviations Used In SCI Rehabilitation
- What is SCI Rehabilitation
- Description of SCI Rehabilitation Outcomes
- Factors for Optimal Outcomes
- Specialized vs General SCI Units (Acute Care)
- Early vs Delayed Admission to Specialized SCI Units
- Health Care After SCI Inpatient Rehabilitation
- Key Points
- Summary
- Appendix: Studies Describing Rehabilitation Outcomes
- References
- Respiratory Management
- Chapter Summary
- Introduction
- Systematic Review
- Pharmaceutical Interventions
- Mechanical Ventilation
- Tracheostomy Placement and Decannulation
- Exercise Training of the Upper and Lower Limbs
- Inspiratory Muscle Training
- Assistive Devices and Other Treatments
- Sleep Disordered Breathing in SCI
- Cough Assist and Secretion Removal
- Electrical Stimulation
- References
- Abbreviations
- Sexual and Reproductive Health
- Introduction
- Systematic Review
- Sexual Health Assessment
- Sexual Activity in Spinal Cord Injured Men and Women
- Sexual and Reproductive Health in Men with SCI
- Male Erectile Response and Enhancement
- Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibitors (PDE5i) and Other Oral Agents
- Intracavernosal Injections (ICI) utilizing Penile Medications
- Topical Agents
- Intraurethral Preparations
- Mechanical Methods: Vacuum Devices and Penile Rings
- Surgical Penile Implants
- Intrathecal Baclofen Pump and Sacral Root Stimulation
- Perineal Muscle Training
- Summary: Treatment for ED
- Sensation, Ejaculation and Orgasm in Men with Spinal Cord Injury
- Male Fertility
- Male Erectile Response and Enhancement
- Sexual and Reproductive Health in Women with SCI
- Sexual Behaviour
- Sexual Education and Counselling
- Summary
- References
- Abbreviations
- Spasticity
- Introduction
- Non-Pharmacological Interventions for Spasticity
- Passive Movement or Stretching
- Interventions Based on Active Movement (Including FES-assisted Movement)
- Interventions Based on Direct Muscle Electrical Stimulation
- Interventions Based on Various Forms of Afferent Stimulation
- Interventions Based on Direct Spinal Cord Stimulation
- Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- Transcranial Theta-Burst Stimulation
- Neuro-Surgical Interventions for Spasticity
- Pharmacological Treatment for Spasticity
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Syringomyelia
- Upper Limb
- Introduction
- Therapy Based Interventions
- Technology Based Interventions
- Sensorimotor Stimulation Interventions
- Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Interventions
- Pharmacological Interventions
- Reconstructive Surgery and Tendon Transfers
- Nerve Transfers
- Complementary and Alternative Medicine
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Abbreviations
- Venous Thromboembolism
- Wheeled Mobility and Seating Equipment
- Introduction
- Manual Wheelchairs
- Power Wheelchairs
- Alternate Forms of Wheeled Mobility
- Seating Equipment for Wheelchairs
- Position Changes for Managing Sitting Pressure/Postural Issues, Fatigue and Discomfort
- Wheelchair Provision
- Summary
- Key Points
- References
- Abbreviations
- Work and Employment
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