Sex | Being male tends to favour return to work. Exceptions: Anderson and Vogel 2002 (195), Arango-Lasprilla et al. 2009* (11424), Arango-Lasprilla et al. 2010*(11090), Gunduz et al. 2010 (152), Krause and Reed 2011* (781), Ottomanelli et al. 2011 (238) | 195 3756 259 615 1397 165 559 5925 82 234 181 2986 183 247 | Anderson and Vogel 2002 Krause et al. 1999 Krause 2003 Krause and Terza, 2006 Krause 2010c* Lidal 2009 Marti et al. 2012 Meade et al. 2004 Pell et al 1997 Tomassen et al. 2000 Rowell and Connelly 2010 Tsai et al. 2014 Ullah et al. 2015 Clark et al. 2017 |
Ethnicity | Being Caucasian tends to favour return to work Exception: Ottomanelli et al. 2011 (238) | 195 11424 11090 3514 1177 1032 3756 615 1362 1134 1397 14454 781 5925 111 118 247 | Anderson and Vogel 2002 Arango-Lasprilla 2009* Arango-Lasprilla 2010* Arango-Lasprilla 2011 Hess et al. 2000 Krause et al. 1998 Krause et al. 1999* Krause and Terza 2006 Krause and Reed 2009* Krause et al 2010b* Krause 2010c* Krause et al 2010d* Krause and Reed 2011* Meade et al, 2004 Phillips et al. 2012 Paul et al. 2013 Clark et al. 2017 |
Age | Employment tends to increase with age up to 30 and remain the same up to middle 40’s Employment is lower in individuals aged 55-64 compared to those aged 45-54 | 195 167 20143 234 181 353 620 149 1323 1159 | Anderson and Vogel 2002 Conroy and McKenna 1999 Pflaum et al. 2006 Tomassen et al. 2000 Rowell and Connelly 2010 (labor market participation may ↓ w/ age) Huang et al. 2017 Hirsh et al. 2009 Blauwet et al. 2013 Jetha et al. 2014 Marti et al. 2018 |
Age at time of injury | Younger age at injury tends to increase employment | 167 1177 1032 3756 84 2986 | Conroy et McKenna 1999 Hess et al. 2000 Krause et al. 1998 Krause et al., 1999* Ramakrishnan et al. 2011 Tsai et al. 2014 |
Duration of injury | The rate of employment increases with duration of injury (20-30 | 167 20143 2986 353 | Conroy and McKenna 1999 Pflaum et al. 2006 Tsai et al. 2014 Huang et al. 2017 |
Severity of injury (cervical or tetraplegia) | Higher and more severe injury (i.e., tetraplegia and complete injury) has a negative influence on employment People experiencing fewer functional limitations have a higher likelihood of obtaining employment Exception: Botticello 2012 (1013), Gunduz 2010 (152), Marti et al. 2012 (559), Phillips et al. 2012 (111), Ottomanelli et al. 2011 (238) | 195 11424 11090 114 167 403 1177 1032 259 1362 1398 1134 781 165 219 91 2986 353 120 | Anderson and Vogel 2002 Arango-Lasprilla 2009* Arango-Lasprilla 2010* Castle 1994 Conroy and McKenna 1999 Franceschini 2012 Hess et al. 2000 Krause et al. 1998 Krause 2003 Krause and Reed 2009* Krause et al. 2010* Krause et al. 2010b* Krause and Reed 2011* Lidal 2009 Murphy et al. 1997 Wang et al. 2002 Tsai et al. 2014 Huang et al. 2017 Kader et al. 2018 |
Education pre-injury | Higher education pre-injury is a key factor in employment. People with tertiary education prior to injury were up to 8 times more likely to be in employment post-SCI. Exception: Ottomanelli et al. 2011 (238) | 11424 3514 1013 114 169 403 152 60 259 615 1362 1398 1134 1397 781 1329 219 559 219 234 | Arango-Lasprilla 2009* Arango-Lasprilla 2011 Botticello 2012 Castle 1994 Conroy and McKenna 1999 Franceschini 2012 Gunduz 2010 Hilton et al. 2017 Krause 2003 Krause and Terza 2006 Krause and Reed 2009* Krause et al. 2010* Krause et al. 2010b* Krause 2010c* Krause and Reed 2011* Krause et al. 2012* Lin et al. 2009 Marti et al. 2012 Murphy et al. 1997 Tomassen et al. 2000 |
Pre-injury work | Positive influence on employment: – Being employed at injury – Returning to pre-injury job – Lower physical demands of job pre-injury | 11424 167 3756 259 1398 1134 192 72 20143 61 234 192 60 114 183 | Arango-Lasprilla 2009* Conroy and McKenna 1999 Krause et al. 1999* Krause 2003 Krause et al. 2010* Krause et al. 2010b* Kurtaran et al. 2009 Murphy et al. 2009 Pflaum et al. 2006 Ramakrishnan et al. 2011b Tomassen et al. 2000 Young et al. 2004 Young et al. 2011 Ferdiana et al. 2014 Ullah et al. 2015 |
Pre-injury chronic conditions | Negatively impacts post-injury employment | 219 | Lin et al. 2009 |
Felony convictions | Negatively impacts ability to find employment regardless of vocation rehabilitation program | 157 | LePage et al. 2014 |
* These studies are based on data from the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center (NSCISC) in the United States. In general, two different types of analyses are undertaken (1) retrospective analysis of data in the database (2) a cross-sectional survey that is sent out to individuals identified from the database. Given that the same eligibility criteria are often used for studies relating to work and employment, it is likely that the data from the same individuals are being used for multiple studies. |